Michael+Coyle

A. Plan of Investigation Research question: “To what extent did the use of napalm by the United States impact the course of the Vietnam War ?”

I plan to look at the course of war, the ways in which napalm was used and the impact that it had in each of these cases. I will rely heavily on primary sources throughout this investigation, such as the memoirs of fighter pilots involved in the use of napalm during the war, photographs, and the commentary of war photographers. I will also rely upon secondary sources, such as analyses of the course of the war and the effects of napalm.

B. Summary of evidence The first militarily effective form of napalm was synthesized in 1943 by Dr. Louis Feiser.[1] While it saw significant use in World War II, it was not until the Vietnam war that it saw wide use.[2]. The use of napalm quickly became synonymous with the war[3]. Militarily, napalm had two primary uses. It could be used extremely effectively to burn large swathes of forests that could potentially shelter insurgents. Additionally, it was used directly against enemy forces, targeted at known insurgents or simply entire villages.[4] Finally, the extensive documentation of the war by war photographers and the like meant that for the first time meant that the public was finally able to reveal the horrors of napalm to the general public and thus turn public opinion against the war.[5].  One of the main problems confronting the United States throughout the Vietnam War was the terrain that they were fighting in. The dense jungle allowed the Viet Cong to exercise guerrilla tactics, striking quickly and then retreating. Such tactics allowed the Viet Cong to emphasize their strengths (knowledge of the terrain, ability to blend in with local populations) while mitigating their disadvantages (lack of cohesion, inferiority of resources). [6]. Clearly, this strategy relied upon the jungly terrain in which the fighting took place: as the war progressed, the United States grew increasingly cognizant of that fact. For US military officials, the solution was clear: destroy the terrain that so readily sheltered enemy combatants.[7] While Agent Orange, a defoliant, was more widely used in that regard, napalm played a supplementary role and was in some respects militarily superior, as it allowed for the destruction of enemy combatants as well as the terrain that concealed them.[8] However, napalm is and was an extremely versatile weapon, and its uses extend far beyond the simple destruction of jungle. It may be hard to visualize the sheer destructive power of napalm: one of the most widely used fire bombs in the war, designated the BLU-1B/B, weighed 750 pounds and held 100 gallons of napalm. When deployed from a plane it could incinerate everything within an area of 2500 square yards. [9] The Napalm B employed during the war burned at 1500 °F, and thus was a versatile and potent weapon. During the course of the war napalm was further employed against tanks, buildings, and numerous other military targets. [10]  While napalm was employed extensively in the destruction of terrain and infrastructure, it had a second, more infamous usage. Napalm’s capacity as an antipersonnel weapon was fearsome indeed. Its most obvious health effect was burns that could go to the bone, but its other effects were equally gruesome. Napalm’s viscous properties meant that once it adhered to one’s skin, it was nearly impossible to remove. The consumption of surrounding oxygen meant that people hit with napalm often asphyxiated, and the large quantities of carbon monoxide released meant that those unfortunate enough to be targeted ran the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning. Much of the napalm employed later in the war also employed white phosphorus, which could give the target white phosphorus poisoning (resulting in multiple organ failure). Finally, the extreme heat radiated by burning napalm was often sufficient to kill nearby individuals. [11] Napalm, when employed as an antipersonnel weapon, killed indiscriminately over wide swathes of land. Consequently, by the end of the war the use of napalm had resulted in the deaths of an estimated 2 million Vietnamese. All of these facts meant that napalm was, according to one Vietnamese source, the most feared weapon employed by the US military. [12].  In the United States, napalm quickly became associated with the war in the minds of anti-war protesters, and, gradually, the general public. A now-infamous photograph of a Vietnamese child named Kim Phuc fleeing from a napalm attack while aflame became symbolic of the brutality of the war. [13] Protests against the involvement of the Dow Chemical Corporation in the production and development of napalm spread to college campuses across the nation, bolstered by disagreement with the use of napalm. Slogans such as “Dow shall not kill” cropped up frequently during such protests and are indicative of the extent to which napalm impacted public opinion of the war. [14]

Part C: Evaluation of Sources Griffiths, Philip Jones. //Vietnam Inc.// New York: Phaidon Press, 2006. Print. Origin: These photographs were taken and arranged by war photographer Philip Jones Griffiths. This new edition of the famous collection of photographs was printed by Phaidon press in 2006. This collection of photographs was released to inform the reader about the hidden side of the Vietnam War that was often overlooked by the popular press. It gives a realistic impression of the situation on the ground in Vietnam, untainted by the sensibilities of the mainstream media or by patriotic sentiment. Additionally, it includes a large quantity of commentary from Griffiths upon his experiences, the nature of his photographs, and the situations that they depict. Finally, the book includes a number of interviews with soldiers on the ground and the people of Vietnam. A number of these photographs and interviews deal with the role of napalm, and therefore this source will be invaluable to my investigation.This source is limited in that it includes more pictures than text, and thus in some cases, the sense of the Vietnam War obtained here may be incomplete or one-sided. Additionally, this reliance on photographs rather than text means that many sections of the book require a degree of interpretation.

Cook, Jerry. Once A Fighter Pilot. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007. Print. This memoir was authored by Jerry Cook, a U.S. Air Force fighter pilot who served in Vietnam. It was published by McGraw-Hill Professional in 2006.It serves to document and describe the experiences of Jerry Cook as he served in the U.S. Air Force.It is valuable because it recounts Cook’s many experiences during his service in the Air Force, a number of them involving napalm. It accurately illustrates the experience of the typical fighter pilot in the Vietnam War. Additionally, it provides key insights into the tactical use of napalm that will be invaluable to my continued investigations. Finally, it illustrates the nonchalance and casual demeanor with which napalm was often employed.However, the personal focus of this memoir means that at times it can fail to indicate the broader scope or implications of the use of napalm. Additionally, as Cook acknowledges, memory is inherent fallible and thus there may be minor inaccuracies in the portrayal of the events of the memoir.

Part D—Analysis To what extent did the use of Napalm by the United States and its allies impact the course of the Vienam War? <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;"> Napalm affected the course of the war in three ways. It allowed the United States to immolate large swathes of jungle, which helped to mitigate the viability and the impact of guerilla tactics employed by the Vietnamese.[15] It was also extremely effective as an antipersonnel weapon, which allowed the United States and its allies to eliminate large numbers of North Vietnamese (both combatants and noncombatants) with relative ease and safety for American soldiers. Because planes dropping napalm bombs meant that key areas could be effectively secured with relatively few American casualties.[16] Finally, it shocked Americans within the United states and helped to foster antiwar demonstrations. The association of napalm with the war only worsened declining public support for the war.[17]

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Part E: Conclusion <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The heavy use of napalm by the United States and its allies was initially highly beneficial for the war effort. Napalm was an extremely effective weapon that could devastate enemy infrastructure and eliminate the “home field advantage” that the Viet Cong enjoyed by razing the jungles they relied upon to the ground. Furthermore, it was a devastating antipersonnel weapon, noted both for its deadliness and its capacity to inspire fear in the enemy. Ultimately, however, the use of napalm contributed to the Unites States’ undoing, as public opinion turned against the use of napalm, and, consequently, the war. The use of napalm constituted a Faustian bargain for the United States: while it clearly had a temporary, material benefit, in the long run it would prove detrimental to the war effort as well as a clear reminder of the atrocities inherent in war.

<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Part F—List of Source Chong, Denise. //The Girl in the Picture: The Story of Kim Phuc, the Photograph, and the Vietnam War//. New York: Penguin, 2001. Print.

Cook, Jerry. //Once A Fighter Pilot//. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007. Print.

Glenn, John, and Nick Taylor. //John Glenn: A Memoir//. New York: Bantam, 1999. Print.

Griffiths, Philip Jones. //Vietnam Inc.// New York: Phaidon Press, 2006. Print.

Lisandro, Irizarry. “CBRNE - Incendiary Agents, Napalm .” //Medscape//. Ed. Robert G Darling. WebMD LLC., 8 May 2009. Web. 25 Mar. 2012. <http://emedicine.medscape.com/‌article/‌833665-overview>.

Parsch, Andreas. “BAK to BSU/‌BSG - Equipment Listing.” //Designation Systems//. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Mar. 2012. <http://www.designation-systems.net/‌usmilav/‌asetds/‌u-b.html#_BLU1>.

“Protesting Napalm.” //Virginia Center for Digital History//. University of Virginia, n.d. Web. 15 Mar. 2012. <http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/‌PVCC/‌mbase/‌docs/‌napalm.html>.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [1] "Protesting Napalm." //Virginia Center for Digital History//. University of Virginia, n.d. Web. 15 Mar. 2012. <http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/mbase/docs/napalm.html>. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [2] ibid <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [3] ibid <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [4] Cook, Jerry. //Once A Fighter Pilot//. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [5] Griffiths, Philip Jones. //Vietnam Inc.// New York: Phaidon Press, 2006. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [6] Chong, Denise. //The Girl in the Picture: The Story of Kim Phuc, the Photograph, and the Vietnam War//. New York: Penguin, 2001. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [7] ibid. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [8] Cook, Jerry. //Once A Fighter Pilot//. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [9] Parsch, Andreas. "BAK to BSU/BSG - Equipment Listing." //Designation Systems//. Web. 15 Mar. 2012. <http://www.designation-systems.net/usmilav/asetds/u-b.html#_BLU1>. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [10] Cook, Jerry. //Once A Fighter Pilot//. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [11] Lisandro, Irizarry. "CBRNE - Incendiary Agents, Napalm ." //Medscape//. Ed. Robert G Darling. WebMD LLC., 8 May 2009. Web. 25 Mar. 2012. <http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/833665-overview>. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [12] Griffiths, Philip Jones. //Vietnam Inc.// New York: Phaidon Press, 2006. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [13] "Protesting Napalm." //Virginia Center for Digital History//. University of Virginia, Web. 15 Mar. 2012. <http://www2.vcdh.Virginia.edu/PVCC/ mbase/docs/napalm.html>. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [14] ibid. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [15] Cook, Jerry. //Once A Fighter Pilot//. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [16] ibid. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> [17] "Protesting Napalm." //Virginia Center for Digital History//. University of Virginia, Web. 15 Mar. 2012.

<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Michael Coyle <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Period 5 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Historical Investigation Source Annotation 1 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Lisandro, Irizarry. "CBRNE - Incendiary Agents, Napalm ." Medscape. Ed. Robert G Darling. WebMD LLC., 8 May 2009. Web. 25 Mar. 2012. <http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/833665-overview>. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Origin: This is a recent medical treatment guide written and edited by medical professionals. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Purpose: To educate the reader on the wounds napalm inflicts as well as how to identify and treat them. This article is intended for a medically-proficient audience but is authored such that the general public can understand it. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Value: This resource allowed me to understand the precise physical impact on the human body as well as the psychological impact that it can have on targets and innocent bystanders alike. These facts will be instrumental as I continue to examine the use of napalm in the war. Furthermore, this page includes general information about napalm that goes more in-depth than that which I had previously discovered. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Limitations: While this page discusses the medical and psychological impacts of napalm, it has little information about the specific applications of napalm in the Vietnam War. Clearly this information will be necessary as I continue my research.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Michael Coyle <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Period 5 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Historical Investigation Source Annotation 2 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Griffiths, Philip Jones. Vietnam Inc. New York: Phaidon Press, 2006. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Origin: This new edition of War photographer Philip Jones Grffiths’ famous collection of photographs was printed by Phaidon press in 2006. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Purpose: This collection of photographs was released to inform the reader about the hidden side of the Vietnam War that was often overlooked by the popular press. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Value: This collection of photographs gives a realistic impression of the situation on the ground in Vietnam, untainted by the sensibilities of the mainstream media or by patriotic sentiment. Additionally, it includes a large quantity of commentary from Griffiths upon his experiences, the nature of his photographs, and the situations that they depict. Finally, the book includes a number of interviews with soldiers on the ground and the people of Vietnam. A number of these photographs and interviews deal with the role of napalm, and therefore this source will be invaluable to my investigation. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Limitations: This source includes more pictures than text, and thus in some cases, the sense of the Vietnam War obtained here may be incomplete or one-sided. Additionally, this reliance on photographs rather than text means that many sections of the book require a degree of interpretation.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Michael Coyle <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Period 5 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Historical Investigation Source Annotation 3 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Cook, Jerry. Once A Fighter Pilot. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Origin: This memoir was authored by Jerry Cook, a U.S. Air Force fighter pilot who served in Vietnam. It was published by McGraw-Hill Professional in 2006. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Purpose: This book serves to document and describe the experiences of Jerry Cook as he served in the U.S. Air Force. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Value: This memoir recounts Cook’s many experiences with napalm during his service in the Air Force. It accurately illustrates the experience of the typical fighter pilot in the Vietnam War. Additionally, it provides key insights into the tactical use of napalm that will be invaluable to my continued investigations. Finally, it illustrates the nonchalance and casual demeanor with which napalm was often employed. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Limitations: The personal focus of this memoir means that at times it can fail to indicate the broader scope or implications of the use of napalm. Additionally, as Cook acknowledges, memory is inherent fallible and thus there may be minor inaccuracies in the portrayal of the events of the memoir.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Michael Coyle <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Period 5 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Historical Investigation Source Annotation 4 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Glenn, John, and Nick Taylor. John Glenn: A Memoir. New York: Bantam, 1999. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Origin: John Glenn, the primary author of this memoir, was a noted U.S. Marine Corps pilot, astronaut, and Senator. This memoir was published by Bantam in 1999. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Purpose: This memoir was published to inform the reader of the life and experiences of John Glenn. <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Value: Glenn’s discussions of his service in the Korean war include extensive accounts of the use of napalm that can be cross-applied to my research on the role of napalm in Vietnam. This detailed account of the life of a pilot who flew bombers employing napalm in war will enable me to employ first-hand accounts of the impact of napalm on enemy soldiers and noncombatants as I continue my investigation. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Limitations: The obvious limitation on this work is its focus upon the Korean War rather than the Vietnam War. While the bulk of Glenn’s experience with napalm is applicable to my research, this disparity must nevertheless be acknowledged. Additionally, parts of the book were written or edited by Glenn’s coauthor, Nick Taylor, and thus minor distortions of events may have taken place. Because of these limitations, I will have to verify what I have learned with sources oriented toward the Vietnam War to gain themost accurate understanding of how events transpired.